All About Geography Questions and Answers

While the word geography is derived from Greek and literally means to write about the earth, the subject of geography is much more than describing foreign places or memorizing the names of capitals and countries. Geography is an all-encompassing discipline that seeks to understand the world —Â  its human and physical features — through an understanding of place and location. Geographers study where things are and how they got there. My favorite definitions for geography are the bridge between the human and physical sciences and the mother of all sciences. Geography looks at the spatial connection between people, places, and the earth. How Is Geography Different from Geology? Many people have an idea of what a geologist does but dont have any idea of what a geographer does. While geography is commonly divided into human geography and physical geography, the difference between physical geography and geology is often confusing. Geographers tend to study the surface of the earth, its landscapes, its features, and why they are where they are. Geologists look deeper into the earth than do geographers and study its rocks, the internal processes of the earth (such as plate tectonics and volcanoes), and study periods of earth history many millions and even billions of years ago. How Does One Become a Geographer? An undergraduate (college or university) education in geography is an important beginning to becoming a geographer. With a bachelors degree in geography, a geography student can begin working in a variety of fields. While many students begin their career after achieving an undergraduate education, others continue on. A masters degree in geography is very helpful for the student who desires to teach at the high school or community college level, to be a cartographer or GIS specialist, of work in business or government. A doctorate in geography (Ph.D.) is necessary if one wishes to become a full professor at a university. Although, many Ph.D.s in geography continue on to form consulting firms, become administrators in government agencies, or attain high-level research positions in corporations or think-tanks. The best resource for learning about colleges and universities that offer degrees in geography is the annual publication of the Association of American Geographers, the Guide to Programs in Geography in the United States and Canada. What Does a Geographer Do? Unfortunately, the job title of geographer is not often found in companies or government agencies (with the most notable exception of the U.S. Census Bureau). However, more and more companies are recognizing the skill that a geographically-trained individual brings to the table. Youll find many geographers working as planners, cartographers (map makers), GIS specialists, analysis, scientists, researchers, and many other positions. Youll also find many geographers working as instructors, professors, and researchers at schools, colleges, and universities. Why Is Geography Important? Being able to view the world geographically is a fundamental skill for everyone. Understanding the connection between the environment and people, geography ties together diverse sciences as geology, biology, and climatology with economics, history, and politics based on location. Geographers understand conflict around the world because so many factors are involved. Who Are the Fathers of Geography? The Greek scholar Eratosthenes, who measured the circumference of the earth and was the first to use the word geography, is commonly called the father of geography. Alexander von Humboldt is commonly called the father of modern geography and William Morris Davis is commonly called the father of American geography. How Can I Learn More About Geography? Taking geography courses, reading geography books, and, of course, exploring this site are great ways to learn. You can increase your geographic literacy of places around the world by getting a good atlas, such as Goodes World Atlas and use it to look up unfamiliar places anytime you encounter them while reading or watching the news. Before long, youll have a great knowledge of where places are. Reading travelogues and historical books can also help improve your geographic literacy and understanding of the world —Â  theyre some of my favorite things to read. What Is the Future of Geography? Things are looking up for geography! More and more schools across the United States are offering or requiring geography be taught at all levels, especially high school. The introduction of the Advanced Placement Human Geography course in high schools in the 2000-2001 school year increased the number of college-ready geography majors, thus increasing the numbers of geography students in undergraduate programs. New geography teachers and professors are needed in all areas of the educational system as more students begin learning geography. GIS (Geographic Information Systems) has become popular in many different disciplines and not just geography. The career opportunities for geographers with technical skills, especially in the area of GIS, is excellent and should continue to grow.

The Adventures Of Huckleberry Finn By Mark Twain - 1678 Words

â€Å"Mark Twain’s story about a young boy and his journey down the Mississippi was the first great novel to speak in a truly American voice.† Quoted from the back of The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn, this sentence suggests the novel to be an American classic, even to go so far as to say The American Classic, as it later goes on to say that it: â€Å"influenc[ed] subsequent generations of writers.† Based on this summary paragraph, one receives a general idea of this book’s importance to American literature, but why does this novel hold such value? What makes this novel an American classic? Before this question can be answered, the definition of an American classic must be firmly in place. According to the two sources investigated, an American classic is also an expression of the times in which it was written, is â€Å"able to endure the test of time,† presents truths and themes that are relevant to all people, reflects beliefs of self-reliance and independence as are from the frontier days, features a lively streak of humor and includes connections to other works (Qualities of Classic Literature, Main Characteristics of American Literature). With this in mind, proceed to the subsequent paragraphs for evidence that The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn is The Classic American novel. To begin, a discussion of the time period in which Huckleberry Finn takes place is in store. There are countless examples present in the text that paint a vivid image of the culture of this time period. OneShow MoreRelatedThe Adventures of Huckleberry Finn by Mark Twain830 Words   |  3 PagesThe Adventures of Huckleberry Finn by Mark Twain is â€Å"A Great American Novel†, because of its complexity and richness. Twain writes dialogue that brings his characters to life. He creates characters with unique voice and helps the reader connect to the book. Anyone who reads it is forced to develop feelings for each character. Even though there is a great amount of controversy over the use of some choices, such as the â€Å"n word†, it makes the book more realistic. In the beginning of the novel Huck,Read MoreThe Adventures Of Huckleberry Finn By Mark Twain1103 Words   |  5 PagesDmitri Van Duine Jr English Mr. Nelson November 27th The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn: Huck Finn and Tom Sawyer The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn, Written by Mark Twain filled his stories with many examples of satire as to convey a message while also writing an interesting story. The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn revolves around the adventures of a young boy called Huckleberry Finn, who is about thirteen years old. Tom Sawyer is Huck’s best friend and around the same age as Huck. He is onlyRead MoreThe Adventures Of Huckleberry Finn By Mark Twain Essay1055 Words   |  5 PagesZambrano Mrs. Patmor AP Lit-Period 5 28 September 2016 Adventures of Huckleberry Finn 1835 Mark Twain embodies realism in almost every aspect of his writing not excluding The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn, which in he portrays such a lifelike setting that it almost gives you this sense of reality through the point of view of a young man that has an urge for freedom yet struggles to conform to society s norms due to his adolescence. Twain s ability to unmask the true identities of the charactersRead MoreThe Adventures Of Huckleberry Finn By Mark Twain931 Words   |  4 PagesWolski Mrs. Goska English 2H Period 3 22 October 2014 The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn Mob mentality is the way an individual’s decisions become influenced by the often unprincipled actions of a crowd. Mark Twain penned The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn. Twain grew up in America’s southern states during the early 1800’s, a time in which moral confusion erupted within the minds of humans. The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn s protagonist is a young boy named Huck who freely travels alongRead MoreThe Adventures Of Huckleberry Finn By Mark Twain1375 Words   |  6 Pagesmention the years spent growing and maturing physically. Teenagers are stuck in an inbetween state where they must learn who they want to become and what they want to be when they grow older. The same is true for Huckleberry Finn, from the book â€Å"The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn† by Mark Twain. This is a book that was written in a time of great confusion over moral codes and standards. It was a world split in half by two different worlds of people; those who opposed, a nd those who promoted slavery.Read MoreMark Twain and The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn1575 Words   |  6 Pages Mark Twain and The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn Controversy Mark Twain, born Samuel Langhorne Clemens, is a highly recognizable figure in American literature. Born in Florida, Missouri Mark Twain and his family moved to Hannibal, Missouri where Twain discovered and fell in love with the mighty Mississippi River. The river and his life in Hannibal became his inspiration and guiding light in most of his writing. Although Twain loved the river and did a great deal of traveling, he eventuallyRead MoreThe Adventures Of Huckleberry Finn By Mark Twain2083 Words   |  9 PagesSatire in Huckleberry Finn In the novel â€Å"The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn† by Mark Twain, we are told a story about a young boy and his slave companion’s journey down the Mississippi River and all of their encounters with other characters. Twain constructed a beautiful narrative on how young Huck Finn, the protagonist in the story, learns about the world and from other adult characters, how he is shaped into his own person. At the time this book was made however, this novel provided serious socialRead MoreThe Adventures Of Huckleberry Finn By Mark Twain810 Words   |  4 PagesBefore Mark Twain started to write two of his most famous novels, The Adventures of Tom Sawyer and Adventures of Huckleberry Finn, Mark was known to use his characters to display his own thoughts and opinions. â€Å"This device allowed him to say just about anything he wanted, provided he could convincingly claim he was simply reporting what others had said.† (Twain, 1283). Mark Twain used this process to be a foundation of his lectures, by manipulating his popularly with his readers. During the storyRead MoreThe Adventures Of Huckleberry Finn By Mark Twain1005 Words   |  5 Pages In the Adventures of Huckleberry Finn written by Mark Twain in the 19th century is about a young boy named Huck Finn and Jim, a runaway slave who go on an adventure. The two travel on a raft along the Mississippi river creating a bond and making memories. Mark Twain presents Huckleberry Finn as a dynamic character who at first views Jim as property and eventually considers Jim as a friend, showing a change in maturity. In the beginning of the book, Huck Finn clearly sees Jim as nothing more thanRead MoreThe Adventures Of Huckleberry Finn By Mark Twain1335 Words   |  6 Pagesyear The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn is placed in the top ten banned books in America. People find the novel to be oppressing and racially insensitive due to its frequent use of the n-word and the portrayal of blacks as a Sambo caricature. However, this goes against Mark Twain’s intent of bringing awareness to the racism in America. The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn by Mark Twain is classified under the genre of satire and is narrated by a fictional character named Huckleberry Finn. The novel

Booking Decisions Have Lost Significance †Myassignmenthelp.Com

Question: Explain On Booking Decisions Have Lost Significance? Answer: Introducation As stated by Flanagin et al., (2014), star rating has created the situation where the consumer can review a product or service before they actually purchase it. The concept that one has to purchase and use a particular thing before they can actually review it has lost and all that matters is the review on the particular product. The influence of customer rating has increased to a large extent in the purchasing decision. The higher stars ratings lead to more orders while lower star ratings will lead decrease the orders for no doubt. The aim of this essay is to develop an argument on how important is the star rating when it comes to purchasing decision. The websites like the Tripadvisor.com has increased the influence of the star rating and made it almost mandatory for the consumers to go through the star ratings before they make their final purchasing decision. Originally created star ratings of hotels meant the level of luxury that the particular hotel provided. The Five Stars indicated the most luxurious hotel compared to the lower star ratings. This definitely indicates the quality of service and the expected experience of a person while staying in that hotel (Holleschovsky Constantinides, 2016). These ratings were determined by the professional experts dealing with hospitality and tourism activities or by the authorities of the hotel itself. However, the rating definition has changed and the consumers have got the authority to rate the hotels based on their individual experiences. If the reliability of the star rating as considered, Mudambi, Schuff and Zhang, (2014,) revealed that one cannot blindly trust on the ratings as showed in the Tripadvisor.com. because it has definitely failed many times in providing the actual information to the consumers. The reviews that are posted in the site are very subjective to the particular reviewer (Park Nicolau, 2015). It is full of refinements and portrays individual experiences that are sure to vary from one person to the other. In a personal blog, it has been found that a blogger faced problem in Istanbul when she was misguided by the five stars rating of a hotel that ultimately turned out to be a bad experience for her in reality (Theguardian.com, 2013). There are definitely many such cases when the consumers have been misguided and ultimately they had to suffer. When it comes to the ratings made by the consumers on a particular hotel, place, product or services, there are certain speculations made behind the reason of rating. As revealed by Flanagin et al., (2014), it has been evident that the products that have high ratings have higher reviews as well. The proposed idea behind this is that the particular product is genuinely good and any person who gets acquainted with that product tells something good about it. This automatically creates an image when any visitors of that particular site can easily be manipulated considering the higher rating of the particular hotel (Theguardian.com, 2013). On the other hand, low rating definitely lowers the expectation of the consumer and will definitely create a negative impact on the consumers. Every internet user has got the opportunity to show their contribution in rating a particular business or brand and at the same time to share their experience with others. The reviews can be speculative in nature and anyone can visit the website of a hotel and can make speculative comments over there that could hamper the image of the hotel without any doubt (Telegraph.co.uk, 2013). This is the reason that the marketing process has become very challenging for those who are in the Hotel business because checking these hotel booking sites is the primary thing that the consumers do in recent time. There have been many ways to increase the ratings of a particular business. As Google is the most used search engine, it has to perform certain responsibilities towards the misinterpretation of star ratings (Park Nicolau, 2015). Recently, Google has taken a step further where the consumers can get a glace of the organisations with five star ratings and so the concept, Get Your Five Stars noticed easily. This would automatically create a potential impact on the visitors of the particular site (Liu Park, 2015). However, there have been certain changes in determining the star ratings by Google, the search is easily optimised by the number of stars that the particular business has. However, in order to show that there is significant need of reviews as well. Unless, a particular business gets good numbers of reviews from the consumers, it will not be shown in the search history because a single five star rating cannot decide the good or bad of the particular business (Taylor Aday, 2016 ). This is a good step taken by the search giant because this way, the reviews can be considered authentic and the viewers can easily rely on the same. There is no doubt that the traditional rating system has changed and many hotels are using the medium of star rating at Tripadvisor as a means of promotion of their business. This has been successful as well because it is easier for the consumers to check the ratings and make decisions accordingly. Moreover, the reviews also portray personal opinion that one can relate with. This is the reason that the hotels are changing their marketing strategies and are focusing on showing their five stars rating over the hotel booking sites like TripAdvisor. By the end of the discussion, it has to be said that no checks are made on the reviews and this can seriously lead to misguide the viewers of the ratings. In order to improve the same, the marketing team of the hotels need to be active on the social networking sites and they need to clear out any kind of misinterpretation or speculations if made against their business. Apart from this, being active over the other social media like Facebook an d Twitter can also help the hotels to carry on their marketing and promotional activities in a better way. References: Flanagin, A. J., Metzger, M. J., Pure, R., Markov, A., Hartsell, E. (2014). Mitigating risk in ecommerce transactions: perceptions of information credibility and the role of user-generated ratings in product quality and purchase intention.Electronic Commerce Research,14(1), 1-23. Holleschovsky, N. I., Constantinides, E. (2016). Impact of online product reviews on purchasing decisions. Liu, Z., Park, S. (2015). What makes a useful online review? Implication for travel product websites.Tourism Management,47, 140-151. Mudambi, S. M., Schuff, D., Zhang, Z. (2014, January). Why aren't the stars aligned? An analysis of online review content and star ratings. InSystem Sciences (HICSS), 2014 47th Hawaii International Conference on(pp. 3139-3147). IEEE. Park, S., Nicolau, J. L. (2015). Asymmetric effects of online consumer reviews.Annals of Tourism Research,50, 67-83. Taylor, D. C., Aday, J. B. (2016). Consumer generated restaurant ratings: A preliminary look at OpenTable. com.Journal of New Business Ideas and Trends,14(1), 14-23. Telegraph.co.uk (2013) Tripadvisor reviews: can we trust them? Retrieved from: https://www.telegraph.co.uk/travel/hotels/8050127/Tripadvisor-reviews-can-we-trust-them.html [Accessed on: 10-8-2017] Theguardian.com (2013) TripAdvisor restaurant reviews: how much can you trust them? Retrieved from: https://www.theguardian.com/lifeandstyle/wordofmouth/2013/jul/30/tripadvisor-restaurant-reviews-trust-travel [Accessed on: 10-8-2017]

Information systems safety of wireless networks

Introduction Wireless network is a common trend that business organizations are adopting with the intent of providing multiple access points to their clients and employees. There are a significant number of operational advantages associated with wireless networks such as eliminating the need to deploy cables for client workstation and hence reducing the costs associated with setting up and expanding the network.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Information systems: safety of wireless networks specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More In addition, most computing devices in the present age have an inbuilt Wi-Fi sensor, resulting to its widespread. There are also a number of limitations associated wireless networks, for instance the inconsistencies in frequency ranges of broadcasts and operational limitations, security issues and many other limitations. This implies that before an organization embarks on the deployment of wir eless networks, it is important to analyze critically the offset between the limitations and advantages of wireless security networks[1]. This paper provides an analysis case study in Australia concerning the security issues during the deployment of wireless networks for organizations and overview of the effect of â€Å"war driving† and ‘war chalking† on the uptake of wireless networks in Australia. Risks of using wireless networks and how they can be overcame Research study by McAfee reveals that 50 per cent of wireless networks in Australia face immense security issues, and that 60 percent of large business corporations have no security implementation measures on their wireless networks. There are risks issues associated with using Wi-Fi at home or in the business organization. The most common problem associated with Wi-Fi is bandwidth stealing, whereby unauthorized users try to use the wireless network access points. In addition, wireless transmission can face interception that can go undetected. The most critical vulnerabilities that wireless networks are susceptible are eavesdropping, unauthorized access, and denial of service[2]. Wireless networks propagate their traffic through air; this implies that there are no methods to control recipients of the broadcasts, because they use an unguided transmission system. As a result, wireless network is prone to interception by third parties. In order to curb this threat, it is imperative that wireless networks should deploy encryption when transmitting their stream. The second risk and vulnerability associated with wireless networks is the nature of the protocols deployed in them. The protocols used in wireless network makes the network to be user friendly because it has weak authentication methods.Advertising Looking for essay on it? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Most laptops and mobile devices have the ability to detect the presence o f a wireless network since an access point to a wireless network broadcasts a network name. This means that if access to the network has no restrictions, a client sensing the broadcast is likely to gain access, since a significant number of network administrators do not implement access levels to their wireless networks. A wireless network is prone to denial of service attacks whereby an attacker hacks into the network with the aim of rendering the network unusable to its legitimate clients. Attacks such as the â€Å"ping of death† can crush the wireless network servers to crash. Denial of Service attacks are more effective in wireless networks because such signals travel in the public domain rather than guided cables, making it difficult for network administrators to detect and prevent such attacks. In addition, wireless networks are subject interference from nearby radio transmissions. There is possibility that accidental interference is likely to occur due to the close ran ge of frequencies assigned to wireless networks. Securing a wireless network from the above requires effective planning through analysis of the possibility of any interference as a resulting the frequency of broadcasting or interception. An important strategy is to implement access controls to the network to limit the number of people who can access and use the network. Encryptions serve to code that data transmitted via wireless networks such that even a person can gain access to the data stream, one can make a meaningful use of the data on the network. Threats can also combated by using static IP addresses on the devices that have the right to access the network. In addition, an organization should deploy firewalls and network security applications that serve to identify the allowable access points and reports any additional access point that is not allowable on the list of static IP addresses assigned to MAC addresses of the hardware on the network[3]. Effect of â€Å"war drivin g† and â€Å"war chalking† on the uptake of wireless networks in Australia War driving bases on the concept that it many operating systems such as windows makes it easy to detect wireless networks that are broadcasting in a given frequency range. This means that roaming users can easily detect and access unsecure wireless networks. The relative ease by which users can detect wireless networks is what is called â€Å"war driving†. War driving has increased the people interest in driving around with the aim of locating and accessing wireless networks that require no authentication. In Australia, there are vast unsecured wireless networks, hence drawing user to map unsecure access points.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Information systems: safety of wireless networks specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More War driving is further enhanced by the fact that there are online utility software to aid in the detection of such wireless networks by laptops and mobile devices such as the PDA. In addition, the availability of many unsecured networks is one the most significant driving factors behind war driving. For instance, McAfee marketing directors reports that out of 622 networks found in Sydney’s North shore, 29 percent of these networks had no security implementation at all. In residential areas such as the Neutral bay, he reports that 42 percent of the networks had no security measures, while those that attempted to implement security were using the older version of Wired Equivalent Privacy (WEP). This older version is prone to hacking, thereby facilitating unauthorized access by malicious users to the private and public wireless networks. This implies that war driving has had a significant effect on the security risks of wireless networks in Australia[4]. War chalking on the other hand refers to openly marking places that are access points to public wireless networks. War c halking is not common phenomenon in Australia because individuals who discover public access points are not willing to make it known that the area is an access point to a vulnerable wireless network. Majority of individuals in Australia go out for war driving as a hobby, with the intent of collecting and pinpointing hotspots. The challenge to owners of vulnerable access points is that they cannot determine the attacker or the person who is responsible for jamming the network. In addition, network administrators have the challenge of determining whether a user is war driving for fun for the sake of a free connection or a attacker who aims at stealing information and rendering the network vulnerable. This means that it makes it difficult to evaluate and implement security measures to such networks since most of them serve to attract clients to a business premise such as a hotel. However, the underlying requirement is that networks in Australia need to remain secure in order to avoid t hreats associated with war driving and war chalking. Issues of security and privacy that organizations must consider when adopting a wireless network Implementing a wireless network means that one is creating multiple access points to the network since there is no method for controlling the transmission of wireless networks. With regard to this, organizations have the need to implement the security and privacy policies regarding the ways in which the users can access the network. Implementing wireless security implies that the organization deploys various strategies aimed at limiting access to wireless networks[5]. Some of the security and privacy issues associated with unauthorized access that organizations must put into consideration include accidental association, malicious association, ad hoc networks, identity theft, and man-in-the middle attacks. In addition, there are security concerns regarding attacks such as Denial of Service attacks, network injection and Caffe Latte atta ck.Advertising Looking for essay on it? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Accidental association is due the overlapping between wireless networks, making a user in such a hotspot a link between the two company networks. Malicious association on the other hand takes place when an attacker uses the network’s access points to impair the functionalities of the network and steal information. Ad hoc networks are also a security concern in wireless networks because they tend to link two wireless networks in a peer-to-peer manner. Other attacks such as wireless network intrusion are a form of security threats that the organization must develop strategies to counter them. Threats posed by war driving and war chalking to wireless networks Despite the fact that most people on war driving and war chalking are undertaking it for the fun of enjoying a free wireless connection, some are some unscrupulous users who might this advantage to attack the network, as a resulting posing security threats to the network. Depending on the knowledge of the user, one can pose a serious threat to the security of the network. There are diverse ways through which people on a war drive can use their knowledge to affect the security of a wireless network. For instance, a person can use his network security and cryptography skills to decrypt the contents of data stream in the network, thereby posing a threat of information theft to the organization. People having a networking expertise can ping wireless network to obtain critical information concerning the configuration of the network, depending on their motives, they can initiate a denial of service attack or crush the whole network down by changing the configuration since most unsecure wireless networks have no access control strategies. There is also a possibility that people on war drive can bypass the firewall and access the organization’s critical information. Issues to put into consideration when running free Wi-Fi services Running free Wi-Fi services is a new trend that business enterprises are embarking on with the aim of attracting customers to their business premise. It is important for such businesses to put into consideration the security concerns associated with free Wi-Fi services, since it is difficult to ascertain the motive of the network user. One strategy to ensure this is to facilitate the issuance of static IP addresses to users so that their activities on the network are traceable. Security applications such as proxy firewalls need to be implemented to the wireless network to enhance security[6]. Wireless network security application software There are a number of applications used for tackling wireless network security issues. Some of them include Wi-Sentry version 4.2, Wi-Fi gear, and Wi-Fi Guardian. Wi-Sentry version 4.2 functions by performing a behavioral analysis and detection of devices that gain access to the wireless network. Therefore, Wi-Sentry ensures wireless network security through monitoring the access points in a network for rogue behaviors and ensuring that only authorized users get access to the network. Wi-Fi guardian on the hand is utility software that aims at enhancing security to a wireless network. Some of the features of the software include high encryption, a client can surf safely in unsecured wireless networks, and a client in the wireless network is anonymous and not visible to other users in the network and an additional online server support with 100 percent availability. The software goes for $50 subscription annually. The iOpus Private Internet Gateway is also wireless network security software (IPIG) that uses encryption to enhance security. The IPIG also fosters security through creation of a secure tunnel that aims at protecting a user’s communications bounds such as email and FTP in a wireless network. The IPIG is an open source application, meaning it is available free and its code can be modified. Bibliography Earle, A,. Wireless security handbook, Auerbach,New York, 2005. Merritt, M., Wi reless security, McGraw-Hill Professional,New York, 2005. Randall, N., Wireless security: models, threats, and solutions, McGraw-Hill Professional, New York, 2002. Footnotes A Earle, Wireless security handbook, Auerbach,New York, 2005. Pp. 56-58. A Earle, Wireless security handbook, Auerbach,New York, 2005. Pp. 60-64 M Merritt, Wireless security, McGraw-Hill Professional New York, 2005. P. 67. M Merritt, Wireless security, McGraw-Hill Professional New York, 2005. Pp. 78-90 N Randall, Wireless security: models, threats, and solutions, McGraw-Hill Professional, New York, 2002. Pp. 67-70. M Merritt, Wireless security, McGraw-Hill Professional New York, 2005. Pp. 78-90 This essay on Information systems: safety of wireless networks was written and submitted by user Isaias P. to help you with your own studies. You are free to use it for research and reference purposes in order to write your own paper; however, you must cite it accordingly. You can donate your paper here.

A level biology essays

A level biology essays Research was carried out to investigate the effect of the direction of incident light on the behavioural response of Calliphora larvae. They were centrally placed onto a piece of white paper marked with positive, negative and neutral in a circular chart. White light was shone onto the maggot from one direction and the subsequent direction and speed of movement was measured. Results suggest that the directional movement of the Calliphora is influenced by the angle of light and that the maggots showed negative phototaxis behaviour. This supports work which was carried out by previous researchers. This response of moving away from the incident light may offer the Calliphora larvae increased chance of survival. Larvae of the Calliphora species demonstrated negative phototaxis when illuminated with incident light radiation. Taxis is an orientation movement towards or away from a light stimulus. Negative phototaxis is the movement away from a light stimulus. In this investigation the maggots were kept in the same conditions and were placed individually into the experimental area. The maggots were then illuminated in light from only one direction and there response was observed. The vast majority of the maggots (80%) moved away from the light, exhibiting negative phototaxis behaviour. Calliphora larvae have a limited protection from UV radiation, the negative phototaxis behaviour shown will take them away from the harmful radiation will improve their chance of survival. After my preliminary work I found a few problems which would cause my investigation to not be as accurate as possible. These problems are: The investigation in my plan was only measuring the rate of movement for the maggot. From my preliminary work I found that this wasnt enough to get the results as accurate as I wanted them, I would now like to introduce a new criteria then I will be measuring, this is the direction of the maggot moves in re...

Honduras Culture Essay essays

Honduras Culture Essay essays The Honduran lifestyle much like our own is based on family ties. Family ties go out beyond the traditional family. You can commonly find Parents, Grandparents, Children, Aunts Like in our own country the father is the head of the household, but the mother is the one with the greatest responsibilities and influences in everyday life. Most young people dont leave home until they are married. Even when they are married the couple either move in with one of the parents or move by really close. The family has sit down dinners every night. The common dinner plate would have rice, beans, corn tortillas and cheese as the staple foods. Pork is also considered a special treat, usually resevered for holidays and specials occasion. Bananas, mangos, citrus fruits, and coconuts avocados are the most common fruits and veggies at any meal. Coca-Cola, Fresca, water, coffee, tea, and beer are common drinks. The family also celebrates many holidays that we also celebrate such as New Years, Labor Day, Columbus Day and Armed Forces Day. One of the must popular holidays in Honduras is Independence Day. There are family activities and parades all day long. Another one of the most popular holiday times is the Easter Holy Week. Celebrations and parades will fill the streets on Good Friday. Easter Sunday may go by almost unnoticed. In addition they also have celebrations honoring patron saints and regional festas. In marriages like in most Spanish countries, they carry both their paternal and maternal surnames. The fathers surname is the individual's family name, but the mothers surname appears at the ...

Taiwanese and American Art Thesis Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 11500 words

Taiwanese and American Art - Thesis Example Still, the Eastern art had a thoughtful impact on Western impressionists where the work was hailed as the ultimate performance art form by master dramatists (Hong 2005). A number of Western artists have expressed their fascination with the spirit of nature in Chinese paintings and how Chinese artists imprison it in a few strokes, thereby, making the blank space on a canvas as reminiscent as the painting itself (Hong 2005). The delineation of Chinese ink and wash landscapes held by this contemporary has caused a substantial blend within the capital's art circles. The last few decades have witnessed a blast in the ideas as well as the theories of art, for it has never been more popular, however, much present thinking remains out-of-the-way and difficult to use (Costello 2007). This thesis effectually delineates the Hybridity and association of the Eastern art with that of the West. The aim of this research is to investigate the similarities as well as differences between Western modernism and Taiwanese Ink and Wash painting, chiefly in their representations as well as the usage of pictorial space, time and color. ... This thesis effectually delineates the Hybridity and association of the Eastern art with that of the West. The aim of this research is to investigate the similarities as well as differences between Western modernism and Taiwanese Ink and Wash painting, chiefly in their representations as well as the usage of pictorial space, time and color. Abstract expressionism and surrealism play a significant role and the Traditional development of modern Ink and Wash painting during the period from 1949 to 2000. According to Bradley, Surrealism reflects the visual richness as well as vivacious confrontations in Documents between art, archaeology, ethnography and other popular culture (Bradley 1999). Moreover, it will focus upon some prominent Taiwanese modern Ink and Wash painters who were respectively influenced by the specific theories and figures of abstract expressionism as well as Surrealism. There have been examined several western methods and ideas which were adopted by the Taiwanese arti sts and their incorporation within the specific cultural contexts of the various schools of art that allow them to establish new, formal as well as stylistic innovations. These comparative perspectives will then be applied to Ink and wash modernists and the abstract expressionists with its leading representatives. 2. Introduction Ink and Wash painting is a genre of the conventional Chinese painting performed on Xuan paper in black with no other colors. Simple, yet elegant, it slowly and

Observations Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Observations - Assignment Example Describe ALL observed locomotion. The chimps depicts quadrupedalism in which four legs are used while walking on the ground. In addition, there is bipedalism as the hands are used to look for food and eating. Brachiation is also evident as the chimp’s moves from one tree or branch to the other. Describe the behavior and interactions you observe. What do the primates do? Try to identify the sex and adult/juvenile/infant age category of the participants. Do adults behave differently with infants than with juveniles or other adults? How does their sex affect interactions? Note both behaviors and responses to them. The young ones appears aggressive in the group. They play amongst each other. Mostly, they follow the guidance of the male in the group and also tries to seek the attention of the male. Their mothers also carry the young as they move from one place to the other. What forms of locomotion do you observe? (quadrupedalism, bipedalism, brachiation, knuckle-walking...) Under what circumstances are they using the different methods of locomotion? Describe ALL observed locomotions. Describe the behavior and interactions you observe. What do the primates do? Try to identify the sex and adult/juvenile/infant age category of the participants. Do adults behave differently with infants than with juveniles or other adults? How does their sex affect interactions? Note both behaviors and responses to them. ï‚ ·Ã¯â‚¬  Grooming (describe it. Self-grooming, pairs, multiple individuals? Do some get more than they give?) The gorilla are seen grooming in pairs. This is evident as the male groom the female as a way of getting intimate. What forms of locomotion do you observe? (quadrupedalism, bipedalism, brachiation, knuckle-walking...) Under what circumstances are they using the different methods of locomotion? Describe ALL observed locomotion. Describe the behavior and interactions you observe. What do

Mid-Term Essay Essay Example for Free

Mid-Term Essay Essay This essay will focus on the influence family background and childhood memories have on writers and the theme of their writings. In both the essays chosen for detailed study here, we see how the authors’ philosophy of life and things that they chose to explore and write about was set way back in their childhood as a result of the traumas they faced. This paper will present an analysis of how the families of Sanders and Maduro shaped the way these authors understand themselves and relate to others. Scott Russell Sanders was the winner of the Mark Twain Award in 2009 and his work A Private History of Awe was nominated for the Pulitzer Prize. Born in Memphis, Tennessee, to a family of cotton farmers, Sanders taught Literature and worked as Professor of English at Indiana University. The main vision behind his writing is the shift in cultures from a consumerist to a care-giving society (Sanders). In his essay, â€Å"Under the Influence: Paying the Price for my Father’s Booze†, Sanders had chronicled the trauma he and his siblings had to endure because of his father’s alcoholism. In this memoir Sander’s recounts the feelings of guilt, shame and helpless that he felt as a child of ten when he saw his father’s unstable and ferocious outbursts after getting drunk. He blamed himself for it and that feeling of guilt hounded him throughout his life. â€Å"I tell myself he drinks to ease [†¦] an ache I must have caused by disappointing him somehow† (Sanders). To atone for his perceived inadequacies as a child Sanders tried to turn to working hard and trying to keep the family together and taking on his father’s responsibilities, â€Å"by vainly seeking to erase through my efforts whatever drove him to drink† (Sanders). Sanders observes that his own children wonder at what drives him to be a â€Å"workaholic† and tries to allay their fears and any sense of guilt or pressure they may feel by being candid about his own feelings of guilt, hurt and shame at his father’s alcoholism. On maturity he realized that he had castigated himself needlessly as a child and that his father’s alcoholism was a disease and he had no reason to feel responsible for it. However, his fear of drinks and bad conduct that he had witnessed as a child had left a deep scar in his soul. He is reticent about going to pubs with his friends and drinking as much as he is afraid of causing hurt or disappointment to anybody. He is constantly watchful of any adverse reactions from people around him and still carries the shame of his father’s â€Å"sins† deep down inside him and shies away from having that facet of his life exposed in public. The name E. S. Maduro is a pseudonym under which the author talks about her feminist beliefs and her convictions on freedom of choice and awareness for women. She records how her own youthful feelings of rebellion against the social norms of marriage and raising children altered upon maturity but how she clung to her belief that women should have the awareness to make decisions for themselves. They should be allowed to choose their career paths according to their wishes and not be forced into stereotypical roles due to societal pressures. In the essay â€Å"Excuse Me While I Explode: My Mother, Myself, My Anger† the writer describes her feelings of anger, guilt and frustrations when she narrates the story of how her mother and women of that generation had to sacrifice their careers and all their life’s desires to accommodate their families and their duties as home makers and mothers. â€Å"Excuse Me While I Explode: My Mother, Myself, My Anger† first appeared in print as an article in a book entitled The Bitch in the House. In this article Maduro has written about her frustration at the inequality women face in society. It primarily deals with her angst at how she being a post-modern woman who was educated and liberated fell back and did the same things that she has found so loathsome in her mother. She had felt defiant at the way her mother and most women had to give-up their own dreams of a good and successful life to slave at household chores and raising children. â€Å"Years ago† a woman did not have a choice to voice her opinions and the role of housekeeper and dutiful mother was thrust upon her without so much as a thought about how she felt about it. Her toil was taken for granted and the spouse did not even think it inappropriate to allow his wife to do all the housework when he could very easily have offered to help. â€Å"I believed myself to be a feminist, and I vowed never to fall into the same trap of domestic boredom and servitude that I saw my mother as being fully entrenched in; never to settle for a life that was, as I saw it, lacking independence, authority, and respect† (Maduro 5). However, as she grew older and had her own experience of loving and living with her partner she was amazed that she followed the same pattern almost unconsciously and managed both house and work despite her partner wanting to help her with the chores. She puzzles over why this is so because she believed herself to be aware of her rights unlike her mother and in full command over her vocation and what she wanted out of life, yet she slaved at household chores: I feel an odd mixture of frustration and love. Together we have a wonderful, open, trusting relationship, but sometimes I wonder if the hostility already in me, and my need to be angry at someone or something, could eventually destroy our bond (Maduro 12). The article is an introspection of why she chose to do this. She comes up with the hypothesis that women chose to take on domestic responsibilities even if it meant forgoing some of their own desires because it made a woman proud to be an accomplished home maker and mother. She identified this need in a woman to excel in housekeeping as a source of pleasure and fulfillment. She reflects on the dichotomy between love and frustration, career and home, raising children and vocation and finally finds comfort in the fact that unlike her mother she was not forced into servitude. She did what she did because she wanted to do it, she had the option of turning away and that made a big difference. She is able to resolve her conflict and also that of many other women by reiterating that choosing to be a good housekeeper and mother was an option and you could choose to be one even if you felt strongly for the cause of feminism. Works Cited Maduro, E. S. â€Å"Excuse Me While I Explode: My Mother, Myself, My Anger†. The Bitch in the House. Cathy Hanauer. New York: Harper Collins, 2002. Print. Sanders, Russell Scott. â€Å"Under the Influence: Paying the Price for my Father’s Booze† Harpers Magazine Nov 1989: n. pag. Web. 2 Jun 2010.

Globalisation Affected The Design Culture Cultural Studies Essay

Globalisation Affected The Design Culture Cultural Studies Essay It has been determined that our genetics play a huge role in what we are as people in terms of our looks and personality as well as our likes and dislikes. It has also been argued that creativity is generic and thus can determine what we individually find aesthetically pleasing. Yet do our upbringing of morals and beliefs play a role in how we view the world in terms of creativity and design? In his chapter on Taste, Clay (2009:13) states that The particular culture an individual is brought up in has inescapable influence in that persons preferences. I tend to agree as I do believe our preferences when it comes to design, stem from where and how we were brought up and in correlation to this, what we were exposed to in our upbringing. However, it seems in todays fast passed technological world where we have advances in technology that ten years ago seemed impossible, that we are losing touch of what culture and heritage are. This generation of technology allows for us to interact in what I believe to be an impersonal fashion. With services through the internet such as Facebook, Twitter and Skype we can communicate globally with the click of a button, which in terms of communication has advantages, yet we seem so detached from human interaction and all that comes with it. This is an effect of globilisation, as we are connected around the world, not only through technology such as the internet, but through the ever growing and advancement of travel networks of railways that link continents and aviation links that allow for transcontinental travel. The reality of the 21st century is that one can be in a different continent within a matter of hours and can communicate throughout the world at any point of time. In term s of creative problem solving, todays connected society has advantage as we can collectively gather and share information that can be used for solutions to global problems and therefore have a global interaction that will determine changes. It is not my argument that this is bad, as we have been allowed a freedom to travel and communicate and therefore experience the world. It is however, my concern that we have been detached from our roots in terms our cultural beliefs and heritage as cross cultural and socio-economic integrations have occurred as a result. Research that has dealt with this topic in particular speaks to how cultures have integrated and mixed and some argue that this is simply a continuation of evolution, yet I feel that as a result we could lose not only cultures that have grown through the ages but the sense of belonging or as Clay (2009;13) terms an individuals status in society. It is thus my intention to determine how globalisation has affected cultures through design changes. Literature Review Preliminary research on globalisation as a general topic has identified the cause of global change and development as a result of technology development that has allowed for the expansion of communication and travel. Cultures have been integrated in the sense that we are all connected through a similar thread that is the internet, where we can share information and discover and solve problems. As a result of this, we are better educated through the extent of knowledge that has been shared through this medium and thus have a better understanding of global issued that are being solved through design. It can be said that every aspect of our lives have been designed as we are constantly looking for ways to simplify our lives, mainly through technology. However, it is through this ever-growing advancement in technology that we have made our lives and therefore our economies and to some extent of which I intent to determine, our cultures complex and thus integrated. Jarzombek and Hwangbo (Global in a not so Global World.[sa]) base their theory on globalisation through what they see as the integration of modern and tradition and how cultural relevancy has been modernised to the extent that tradition is seemingly extinct. Examples of Eastern and Asian Architecture are used here to explain how politics and global integration can determine what is built and for what purpose a building takes on, regardless of the socio-economic situation or cultural effect that will occur. Although this article shows a bias argument, it is the issue of how cultural relevance has taken the back fall to global change in power and political battles that are of a result of globalisation that is of interest as this can determine how culture in terms of design is at risk. Therefore, it can be said that our lives are designed according to these changes as Marcus. G. H (What is Design Today.2002) asks the question What is Good Design? which can lead to an infinite array of answers that are determined by the individual. It is however my interest in Marcus take on how each aspect of design, from industrial to product design, relates to each other and forms a correlation that will affect each other as a result. Archer. B.L (Design Awareness.1974) similarly discusses creativity and how design is brought about. Elements of design from corporate strategy to consumer demand and conflicting issues in design are explained in a simplified way which break down design into a logical format from creativity and ideas to how and why designs are brought into effect and the global process that either demands or supplies influence on new design. However, it is the effect on society and heritage that is discussed in a business like format, which is of interest as Archer gives perspective on the global effect of design and why consumers are a part of the change. This leads to the idea of the consumer based society whereby we show demand for new products especially in technology and as a result we are affecting what is designed and produced and how we live our lives. Clay. R.(Beautiful Thing.2009) uses examples of art and design to correlate the relationships in all forms of creativity and therefore delves into the evolution of design and how this has effect on culture. Design in relation to our personal upbringings and where we live in todays society coincides on design decisions we make and why and how the human condition has evolved and changes with technology and global issues that are being discovered and solved through design. Cultural influences are debated through examples of clichà © designs and how these design methods have influenced design today and in what direction design is taking in modern society which will further more change culture and society which serves as the underlying issue of this research. On a similar chord, while dealing with culture of a region or geographic whereby consumers can be influenced through design, symbols and signs play a role in what is attractive or desirable in design. Culture can be described as familiarity and it is that which shows difference in culture and therefore design takes inspiration from this. Saleh M. (The use of historic symbols in contemporary planning and design*. 1998) explains that The meanings in symbols can be derived from three distinct forms of interaction: first, the ascription of economic and intellectual status to an object as a result of historical discourse; second, through use of an object when mediated by the cultural sphere; and third, when exchange values are transformed to sign values, as citisens, designers or decision makers interfere with the meaning of a landmark under cultural, economic and political relations of production and therefore introduces the realm of symbolic relation between culture and design and there fore how globally this relationship has been affected, of which the intention is to determine. Significance of Research My preliminary research has indicated that this topic is relevant in correlation to what is already known and it is the intention to further my knowledge of both cultures around the world as well as design that relates to culture and heritage. I have always been interested in travel and how other people live and moving to a new country has expanded my interest as I have learnt how people in South Africa live and how different the various cultures are. Language has also been a significant as I have learnt three languages that I would consider to be beneficial to my intended travel plans, and through language I have learnt that there is culture and heritage that is connected to a language; a topic that I could incorporate into my research paper. As it is my intention to research further into the implications of globalisation in relation to cultural changes and how this has influenced or been influential on design, I see this topic to be relevant to todays society and in relation to South African design. Research Methodology Though the current literature review, the topic of interest is placed into what is already known and it is my intention to further my research through the following questions and therefore derive a chapter outline for my proposed research paper: What is globalisation? How have cultures changed? What determined these changes? How has design changed? What has determined these changes? Does globalisation determine design change? How? Does design change determine cultural change? How?

Globalization is only for Developed Countries Essay

In the 1990s, the term globalization gained the popularity. At that time, globalization had become phenomena with an aura of an elemental force, almost similar to that of time and gravity. In simple words Globalization means that the same products will be available in all the countries of the world. It also means economic integration and a world united by the web. This glorious ideal made us think that if globalization would stay on with all its perks with falling trade barriers, leaving countries batter off economically and that it will reduce the widening gap between the rich and the poor. It was believed that the removal of the barriers to trade and foreign investment would result in a dynamic change in the way a company anywhere in the world would do business. It was hoped that the integration would prove beneficial to all. In the 1990s the iron curtain disappeared and trade barriers started falling, the gifts of several rounds of WTO, the Western and Japanese entrepreneurs started looking far beyond there borders for highly beneficial deals, cheap labor new markets and a very big lot of new customers. Nobel Laureate, Stiglitz (2002) rightly interpreted the situations of developing countries in his illustrative work Globalization and Its Discontents. He says; â€Å"Small developing countries are like small boats. Rapid capital market liberalization, in the manner pushed by the IMF, amounted to setting them off on a voyage on a rough sea, before the holes in their hulls have been repaired, before the captain has received training, before life vests have been put on board. Even in the best of circumstances, there was a high likelihood that they would be overturned when they were hit broadside by a big wave (p. 17). † With the end of World War II globalization started taking shape in a big way. In 1975, there were still only 7000 MNCs compared to more than 60000 today. A maddening race for going global began from opening up a two-man sales office to chalking out a countrywide network. Companies had to be big and they had to be universal. By the 1990s no one was alien to the charms of the phenomenon called globalization. The intellects of the world-entrepreneurs, economists, celebrities and politicians traveled around the world to tell us how small the world was getting. We were told to think globally and act locally. However, soon the reality dawned. The developed nations have discarded the moth-eaten policy and adopted an open-shutter strategy in coping with the developing nations. In the past they donned an apologetic camouflage and devised subtle and under-the-counter means to bring the developing countries round to their point of view, they at least acknowledged their sensitivities and treated them as members, no matter how low-grade, of the homo sapiens species. But now they have thrown all pretence to the winds and, without mincing words, dictated their terms to the developing world. Even Kipling had the decency to spell out the Western concern for the ‘uncivilized’ people of the third world by treating them as ‘the white man’s burden’. He was deeply committed to their improvement and had probably hatched some fantastic schemes to pull them out of their ‘savage’ state. But the present day reformers make no bones about it. They shamelessly believe that the condition of the third world countries is simply irretrievable and no amount of logic and persuasion can help them out of their ugly predicament. Therefore they now rely on dictation as a prescription for their conversation and have imposed their brand of progress and prosperity spineless people of the third world. And they are least bothered about their preferences and priorities.

Porter Generic Strategies on Indian Automobile Induatry Essay

PORTER’S GENERIC COMPETITIVE STRATEGY Automobile Sector MARUTHI: Low Cost Product – Differentiated service Product Pricing: Maruthi build high walls of safety against competition by its very competitive pricing i.e. pricing as low as possible for the particular product. Maruthi has also been a company that has strived for sustainable development with their â€Å"three R† framework standing for â€Å"reduce, recycle, reuse† in its plants, so that there is a minimal stress on resources emphasizing on low cost while retaining their promise to the customer. Maruthi Product – Target Market – Pricing As important for low cost provider they are also backed by huge economies of scale as depicted below; Customer Service: In the other hand maruthi has been sought by people for its distribution and service availability across the length and breadth of the nation. â€Å"Yes, you can get lost in India, but chances are there will be a Maruti Suzuki Service Station close at hand. Wherever you go, across the length and breadth of this vast nation, our service network follows.† boasts maruthi relying on its widest service network servicing more than 40,000 cars a day. Maruthi has been No.1 in the J D Power Customer Satisfaction Award for a staggering 13 years in a row. It’s a survey that rates the after-sales service experience, one that no other global car market leader has won even once. Source:Maruthi.co.in TATA: COST LEADERSHIP Tata motors is a part of the conglomerate TATA and their focus is to provide cost effective solution to their customers going in line with their mission of â€Å"To be passionate in anticipating and providing the best vehicles and experiences that excite our customers globally.† Source: Tatamotors.com Focusing on values like Integrity, Accountability, Innovation, Passion for excellence with their focus to provide low cost solution ranging from TATA flag mark product NANO. The following picture gives the price list for the cars, Source: Car pricedhekho.com Their economies of scale are one of the highest in the industry signifying the low cost in production also reuse and less emphasis on design features and these coupled with their unique processing of fixing reverse methodology of pricing the product first and thereby innovating and designing so as to fit the price makes them the leader in providing low cost solutions reaching out the customers. TATA also boasts it service network being wide and reachable in almost all corners of the nation but their main focus and strive is on providing low cost solutions. MAHINDRA: DIFFERENTIATION (BLUE OCEAN STRATEGY) Mahindra & Mahindra (M&M) manufactures utility vehicles (UVs), tractors, commercial vehicles (CVs), three-wheelers and gensets. Mahindra was the first mover when it comes to utility vehicles in India and has an indomitable market and place in customer mind when their focus is on performance under optimal price. It is India’s market leader in UVs and tractors and In land, Mahindra has dominant share in all its segments – | Source: SIAM, Company Data, Credit Suisse estimates| Mahindra earns a competitive advantage via a combination of a tractor and UV business in India which face very little or no competition. Mahindra brought in SUV’s in Indian market focusing on raw power and performance with the launch of Bolero and the launch of Scorpio has proven to be a game-changer for the company and has help it transform its image from a people-mover to luxury SUV manufacturer followed by launch of its most-awaited XUV 500 dominating the SUV category with its differentiated products. All this was keenly observed by famous strategist and thinker Mr. C K Prahlad and named the whole milieu as â€Å"FORTRESS MAHINDRA†. Fortress Mahindra means that if you go into a certain mobility business where you can share procurement, where you can share research and development synergies, where you can share logistics, where you can share brand, you can share channel and then create a mobility web where it becomes easier to enter a  mobility business that somebod y else can’t and easier to defend when somebody tries to emulate. Source: Business Today

Juvenile Delinquency And Religion Essays - Criminology, Free Essays

Juvenile Delinquency And Religion Essays - Criminology, Free Essays Juvenile Delinquency And Religion Over the years, countless efforts have been made to find a comprehensive explanation for delinquency. The results of these efforts have offered possible reasons as being both biological and social. It is still debatable as to what forces have the greatest influence on youth crime, but it is undoubted that several factors clearly make an impact. The direct relationships a child has with concrete social elements, like his family and friends, are likely to give some intimation of his involvement in crime. However, it must be noted that there are more abstract contexts for socialization that also exist as potential explanations for a childs behavior. The most prominent of these less specific forces are the media, community, and religion. It has been argued extensively that these three elements represent a major source of delinquency in the U.S. today. Everyone has at one time or another heard accusations against television, for instance, and how it has such degenerating capabilities in r elation to young minds. Equally common are the various public proclamations about the lack of brotherhood among citizens of this country. These complaints are nothing new to our society; before television was vilified, it was radio, and before radio it was comic books. In short, these problems merely exist as different manifestations of an age-old concern. Another, seemingly less obvious, aspect of this argument deals with the role of religion in society. In paralleling it to delinquency, for all its power and influence, religion is much more perplexing than the media or sense of community. For one, religion exists on many different levels and is extremely difficult to define in a fashion suitable to the debate. In addition, the fact that religion is such a controversial and sensitive subject only complicates the pursuit of characterizing and understanding it. These obstacles notwithstanding, the multifaceted effects of religion on crime have been argued for centuries. They will lik ely continue, as people observe that religion influences the behavior of people, serves as a set of values for society, and correlates with delinquency in several ways. The relationship between crime and religion has been explored for many years, with only a handful of theorists drawing any direct conclusions. Among few others, three of the most influential social philosophers of the past 200 years, Marx, Durkheim, and Weber, have all commented on the importance of religion to this issue. Marx believed that religion existed to give people a false hope for the future and to keep them motivated during the present. In accomplishing this, religion also deterred people from crime by making them concentrate on their social roles, while ignoring the oppression of stratified economic systems. Durkheim asserted that social order could be maintained only if people had common beliefs in something greater than themselves (Jensen and Rojek 309). He saw religion as very interconnected with social values as it contributed to a loss of strong communal bonds between the tenants of Western society. As people begin to believe more in themselves and less in a higher po wer, Durkheim argued, they become less committed to an interdependent society and highly prone to selfish acts of lawlessness. Weber, another distinguished sociologist, attributed social deviance to religious factors as well. He believed that religious institutions were intertwined with other institutions, contributing to both progressive and regressive social development (Jensen and Rojek 309). These three attempted to explain the social importance of religion, while only scratching the surface of its relationship to crime. Although they fail to adequately expand on the subject, the ideas of these influential thinkers represent some basic thoughts on the religious causes of crime, and they have led to successive investigations of religion and delinquency. Surprisingly, facts about crime and religion over the years have been rather indecipherable, as research findings from different studies have frequently produced contradicting results. Studies have shown delinquents being less religious than nondelinquents, religiously similar to nondelinquents, and in some cases more religious than nondelinquents. Even when differences between delinquent and nondelinquent relations to religion have been found, those differences have been only minor and insignificant. In one major study by Hirschi and Stark, it was discovered that high school students held interesting social beliefs relative to their church attendance

Unity in Paragraphs and Essays

Unity in Paragraphs and Essays In composition, unity is the quality of oneness in a paragraph or essay that results when all the words and sentences contribute to a single effect or main idea; also called wholeness. For the past two centuries, composition handbooks have insisted that unity is an essential characteristic of an effective text. Professor Andy Crockett points out that the five-paragraph theme and  current-traditional rhetorics emphasis on method reflect further the expediency and utility of unity. However, Crockett also notes that for rhetoricians, the achievement of unity has never been taken for granted (Encyclopedia of Rhetoric and Composition, 1996.) Pronunciation YOO-ni-tee Etymology From the Latin, one. Observations Most pieces of effective writing are unified around one main point. That is, all the subpoints and  supporting details are relevant to that point. Generally, after you have read an essay, you can sum up the writers main point in a sentence, even if the author has not stated it explicitly. We call this summary statement a thesis. (X. J. Kennedy, Dorothy M. Kennedy, and Marcia F. Muth, The Bedford Guide for College Writers, 8th ed. Bedford/St. Martins, 2008)Unity and CoherenceA good check on unity is to ask yourself if everything in your paragraph or essay is subordinate to and derived from the controlling idea. Make sure that your controlling idea- the topic sentence or thesis- indicates the subject and the focus on that subject...​ (Lee Brandon and Kelly Brandon, Paragraphs and Essays With Integrated Readings, 12th ed. Wadsworth, 2012) Rules of Thumb for Writing Unified Paragraphs Be sure your paragraphs focus on one idea and state that idea in a topic sentence.Place your topic sentence effectively within your paragraph. Let the purpose of your paragraph and the nature of your evidence guide you.Let your paragraphs evidence- the selected details, the examples- illustrate or clarify the idea expressed in your topic sentence.Make sure you explain the relationship between your evidence and your idea so that it is clear to readers.Think about unity among paragraphs when writing essays. Be sure your paragraphs are related, that they fit together and clarify your essays idea.​ (R. DiYanni, Scribner Handbook for Writers. Allyn Bacon, 2001) A Note on Topic Sentences Paragraphs may not have a topic sentence, but they must have unity and purpose. All the ideas in a paragraph should relate to a clear point readers will easily understand. (Mark Connelly, Get Writing: Paragraphs and Essays. Thomson Wadsworth, 2009) Counterviews on Unity Unity is the shallowest, the cheapest deception of all composition... Every piece of writing, it matters not what it is, has unity. Inexpert or bad writing most terribly so. But ability in an essay is a multiplicity, infinite fracture, the intercrossing of opposed forces establishing any number of opposed centres of stillness.(William Carlos Williams, An Essay on Virginia, 1925)

What is the purpose of interviewing and why intentional interviewing Essay

What is the purpose of interviewing and why intentional interviewing skills are important in Human Services - Essay Example The intentional interviewing process is a practical tool for analyzing the individual’s emotional variations during the conversation by a number of questions to provoke the person to speak more vividly about all the perturbing aspects of daily life. The basic point noticed in such conversations is ether the disability to express or the excessiveness of expression exhibited by the client from which the interviewer can take effective note on his psychological requirements. The ultimate purpose of an intentional interview with the client is therefore, â€Å"to respect the client, use appropriate skills and strategies, and seek to alleviate stress† (Ivery, Ivery A and Zalaquett, 12). Intentional interviewing is regarded as the basis for framing psychoanalytical approach to client’s issues related to his work or sociability concerns. In order to access the institutional stature developed in the client, the interviewer should focus on inducing the client frame stories of his actual experiences with the conditions mentioned in the issues. There must be equal emphasis from the interviewer to listen patiently to the stories of the clients about their personal encounters with the differential conditions.

The Journal of Helene Berr Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

The Journal of Helene Berr - Essay Example The book is a compilation of Berr’s diary that took every day of her life during the two years of Jews’ persecution. The book presents persecution of Jews in France during the Nazi era. It accounts for the great suffering of the French Jews during this era. The book shows how the Jews were snatched from the streets and their deportation, and others killings. The book elaborates on the treatment of the Jews during the World War Two. She began writing the diary in 1942 but, the publishing was 63 years after the death of Helene Berr. The author records all the humiliations that the Jews went through in the occupied Paris in the hands of the Nazis. Helene Berr entrusted the diary to the family cook who was to pass to Helene’s fiance.1 Helene Berr was a 21 year old Jew who was pursuing English literature at Sorbonne. She was from a rich Jewish family that was living in France. She lived with her family, which included her parents, elder sister and a domestic worker.2 She was intelligent, brave, loving and passionate about everything that she did and full of talent. There is well presentation of these traits in the book as it flows. During the peaceful times in France, Helene and her family had a decent life that the rich people could afford. Helene had a normal life and socialized with most people in the surrounding society even those who were not of her social class. This is shown by the life she was living by having friends from the school, amateur musicians, her family and how they went for holidays and her maternal grandmother.3 During this time, there were two parts of France; Paris and South France. South was the peaceful state when Paris was unsafe due to occupation of the Nazis. The occupation of the Nazis led to people escaping to the South including Helene’s younger brother Jacques. After the Nazis occupation, life of Helene and that of her family took a new turn in that they could not live in peace anymore. Her father was arres ted and deported. This is where her transformation sets in because she had to join Jewish supporters and relief agencies which were her fifth circle of her life. In these agencies, she became friendly to many people who were the front runners in protecting the French Jews. At the agencies, she helped in saving many lives of the Jews who were threatened by the Germans. They took care of the orphans whose parents were arrested and killed. The friendliness is well presented in the book, because of many friends she had in the English studies department, in Sorbonne. This show how humble she was even though she came from a rich French family of Jewish origin. The book also shows how Helene was caring; this is evident where she suppressed feelings towards her fiance who fled to the South so as to stay with the rest of the family and not to act in a cowardly manner. During this period, Helene took the orphans in an aid organization to nature walks and helped in running the headquarters. Th e act shows how brave she was to stay and identify with the suffering Jews. She was brave enough to put on a yellow star that was used to identify the Jews.4 She develops this change of mind to identify with fellow Jews who were facing persecution. This situation affected Berr’s family life as Helene’s father was arrested and deported. She even stopped schooling and the man she loved fled to the South; this made her lose the things she loved most; her fiance and her studies.5 Helene was a strong person because she survived and lived without the men she loved; her father and her fiance. Helene criticized the French Christians who ignored what was happening to the Jews.6 She advocated for socialism where all people were to be treated in the same manner no

Roaring & Not-So Roaring Twenties Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Roaring & Not-So Roaring Twenties - Essay Example Banking system started to progress, although this was on temporary grounds. Music industry also flourished. Jazz and other modern instruments were introduced. Radio transmission saw progress and more familiarity amongst the masses. Literature also flourished. The American dream was being followed more vigorously. Wall Street flourished and went global. European Industries also saw progress. The negative side was the too much reliance on technology and artificial existence of the markets and industries. This eventually led to the Economic Recession towards the late 1920s. The Great Depression again led the mindset towards an authoritative mindset. For example, fascism, Communism, and Nazism, all prevailed as a reactionary mindset, ideology and political concepts against the capitalist markets. Other draw backs of this concept were the fact that social competition came about. The novel The Great Gatsby is reflective of the impacts the roaring twenties had on the society and

Firstmover Advantage Essay Example for Free

Firstmover Advantage Essay What, exactly, are first-mover advantages? Under what conditions do they arise, and by what specific mechanisms? Do first-movers make aboveaverage profits? And when is it in a firm’s interest to pursue first-mover opportunities, as opposed to allowing rivals to make the pioneering investments? In this paper we examine these and other related questions. We categorize the mechanisms that confer advantages and disadvantages on first-mover firms, and critically assess the relevant theoretical and empirical literature. The recent burgeoning of theoretical work in industrial economics provides a rich set of models that help make our understanding of first-mover advantages more precise. There is also a growing body of empirical literature on order-of-entry effects. Our aim is to begin to provide a more detailed mapping of mechanisms and outcomes, to serve as a guide for future research. We define first-mover advantages in terms of the ability of pioneering firms to earn positive economic profits (i. e. , profits in excess of the cost of capital). First-mover advantages arise endogenously within a multi-stage process, as illustrated in Figure 1. In the first stage, some asymmetry is generated, enabling one particular firm to gain a head start over rivals. This first-mover opportunity may occur because the firm posesses some unique resources or foresight, or simply because of luck. Once this asymmetry is generated there are a variety of mechanisms that may enable the firm to exploit its position; these mechanisms enhance the magnitude or durability (or both) of first-mover profits. Our discussion is organized as follows. We first consider theoretical models and empirical evidence on three general categories in which first-mover advantage can be attained: leadership in product and process technology, preemption of assets, and development of buyer switching costs. We then examine potential disadvantages of first-mover firms (or conversely, relative advantages enjoyed by late-mover rivals). These include free-rider problems and a tendency toward inertia or sluggish response by established incumbents. The next section addresses a series of basic conceptual issues. These include the endogenous nature of first-mover opportunities, and various definitional and measurement questions. We conclude with an assessment of opportunities for additional research, and a summary of managerial implications. 1 MECHANISMS LEADING TO FIRST-MOVER ADVANTAGES First-mover advantages arise from three primary sources: (1) technological leadership, (2) preemption of assets, and (3) buyer switching costs. Within each category there are a number of specific mechanisms. 1 In this section we survey the existing theoretical and empirical literature on these three general categories of first-mover advantages. The theoretical models surveyed in this section assume the existence of some initial asymmetry among competitors that can be exploited by the first-mover firm. This intial asymmetry is critical; without it first-mover. advantages do not arise. Later in the paper we consider ways in which this asymmetry may come about. Technological Leadership First-movers can gain advantage through sustainable leadership in technology. Two basic mechanisms are considered in the literature: (1) advantages derived from the â€Å"learning† or â€Å"experience† curve, where costs fall with Cumulative output, and (2) success in patent or RD races, where advances in product or process technology are a function of RD expenditures. Learning curve In the standard learning-curve model, unit production costs fall with cumulative output. This generates a sustainable cost advantage for the early entrant if learning can be kept proprietary and the firm can maintain leadership in market share. This argument was popularized by the Boston Consulting Group during the 1970s and has had a considerable influence on the strategic management field. In a seminal theoretical paper, Spence (1981) demonstrated that when learning can be kept proprietary, the learning curve can generate substantial barriers to entry. Fewer than a handful of firms may be able to compete profitably. 2 However, despite high seller concentration there are incentives for vigorous competition. Firms that do enter may initially sell below cost Rumelt (1987) refers to these as â€Å"isolating mechanisms,† since they protect â€Å"entrepreneurial rents† from imitative competition. 2 1n a related setting where learning depends on accumulated investment rather than output, Gilbert and Harris (1981) show that a first-mover will preempt in the construction of new plants over multiple generations. 1 2 in an effort to accumulate greater experience, and thereby gain a long-term cost advantage. Such vigorous competition sharply reduces profits. Empirical evidence supporting such learning-based preemption is given by Ghemawat (1984) in the case of DuPont’s development of an innovative process for titanium dioxide, and by Porter (1981) who discusses Proctor and Gamble’s sustained advantage in disposable diapers in the US. Similarly, Shaw and Shaw (1984) argue that late entrants into European synthetic fiber markets failed to gain significant market shares or low cost positions, and many ultimately exited. Learning-based advantages are also evident in the case of Lincoln Electric Company (Fast, 1975); the firm’s early market entry with superior patented products, coupled with a distinctive managerial system promoting continued cost reduction in an evolutionary technological environment, has enabled the company to sustain remarkably high profitability. Inter-firm diffusion of technology, which diminishes first-mover advantages derived from the learning curve, is emphasized in theoretical papers by Ghemawat and Spence (1985) and Lieberman (1987c). It is now generally recognized that diffusion occurs rapidly in most industries, and learning-based advantages are less widespread than was commonly believed in the 1970s. Mechanisms for diffusion include workforce mobility, research publication, informal technical communication, â€Å"reverse engineering,† plant tours, etc. For a sample of firms in ten industries, Mansfield (1985) found that process technology leaks more slowly than product technology, but competitors typically gain access to detailed information on both products and processes within a year of development. Lieberman (1982, 1987b) shows that diffusion of process technology enabled late entry into a sample of forty chemical product industries, despite strong learning curve effects at the industry level. R~Dand patents When technological advantage is largely a function of RD expenditures, pioneers can gain advantage if technology can be patented or maintained as trade secrets. This has been formalized in the theoretical economics literature in the form of RD or patent races where advantages are often enjoyed by the first-mover firm. Gilbert and Newberry (1982) were the first to develop a model of preemptive patenting, in which a firm with an early head-start in research exploits its lead to deter rivals from entering the patent race. Subsequent papers by Reinganum (1983), Fudenberg, et 3 al. (1983) and others showed that that preemption by the leader depends on assumptions regarding the stochastic nature of the RD process and whether it is possible for followers to â€Å"leapfrog† ahead of the incumbent. One general defect of this patent race literature is that all returns are assumed to go exclusively to the winner of the race. As an empirical matter, such patent races seem to be important in only a few industries, such as pharmaceuticals. In most industries, patents confer only weak protection, are easy to â€Å"invent around,† or have transitory value given the pace of technological change. For a sample of 48 patented product innovations in pharmaceuticals, chemicals and electrical products, Mansfield et al. (1981) found that on average, imitators could duplicate patented innovations for about 65% of the innovators cost; imitation was fairly rapid, with 60% of the patented innovations imitated within four years. Imitation appeared relatively more costly in the pharmaceutical industry, where immitators must go through the same regulatory approval procedures as the innovating firm. Levin et al. (1984) found wide inter-industry variation in the cost and time required for imitation. They also found inter-industry differences in appropriability mechanisms, with lead-time and learning curve advantages relatively important in many industries, and patents important in few. In a study using the PIMS data base, Robinson (1988) found that pioneer firms benefit from patents or trade secrets to a significantly greater extent than followers (29% vs. 13%). However, he also found that patents accounted for only a small proportion of the perceived quality advantages enjoyed by pioneers. Several case studies have examined the role of patents in sustaining firstmover advantages. Bresnahan (1985) discusses Xerox’s use of patents as an entry barrier. In addition to key patents on the basic Xerography process, Xerox patented a thicket of alternative technologies which defended the firm from entry until challengers used anti-trust actions to force compulsory licensing. Bright (1949) argues that GE’s long-term dominance of the electric lamp industry was initially derived from control of the basic Edison patent, and later maintained through the accumulation of hundreds of minor patents on the lamp and associated equipment. RD and innovation need not be limited to physical hardware; firms also make improvements in managerial systems and may invent new organizational forms. Organizational innovation is often slow to diffuse, and hence may convey more durable first-mover advantage than product or process innovation (Teece, 1980). Chandler (1977) describes managerial innovations that enabled producers to exploit newly-available scale economies in 4 manufacturing and distribution in the late 19th century. Many of these firms—e. g. , American Tobacco, Campbell Soup, Quaker Oats, Proctor and  Gamble—still retain dominant positions in their industries. Preemption of Scarce Assets The first-mover firm may be able to gain advantage by preempting rivals in the acquisition of scarce assets. Here, the first-mover gains advantage by controffing assets that already exist, rather than those created by the firm through development of new technology. Such assets may be physical resources or other process inputs. Alternatively, the assets may relate to positioning in â€Å"space,† including geographic space, product space, shelf space, etc. Preemption of input factors II the first-mover firm has superior information, it may be able to purchase assets at market prices below those that will prevail later in the evolution of the market. Such assets include natural resource deposits and prime retailing or manufacturing locations. Here, the returns garnered by the first-mover are pure economic rents. 3 A first-mover with superior information can (in principle) collect all such rents earned on non-mobile assets such as resource deposits and real estate. 4 The firm may also be able to appropriate some of the rents that accrue to potentially mobile assets such as employees, suppliers and distributors. The firm can collect such rents if these factors are bound to the firm by switching costs, so that their mobility is restricted. One empirical study of first-mover advantages in controlling natural resources is Main (1955). Main argues that the concentration of high-grade nickel deposits in a single geographic area made it possible for the first company in the area to secure rights to virtually the entire supply, and thus dominate world production for decades. The basic argument is sta-ndard economic analysis, and can be traced back to Ricardo’s analysis of rents captured by landowners (first-movers) in the market for wheat in 19th century England. 4 Note that with complete markets, a first-mover with superior information need not actually own or control such assets to capture economic rents. Hirshleifer (1971) argues that if futures markets exist, the firm can simply assume forward market positions that exploit its superior information. 3 5 Preemption of locations in geographic and product characteristics space First-movers may also be able to deter entry through strategies of spatial preemption. In many markets there is â€Å"room† for only a limited number of profitable firms; the first-mover can often select the most attractive niches and may be able to take strategic actions that limit the amount of space available for subsequent entrants. Preemptable â€Å"space† can be interpreted broadly to include not only geographic space, but also shelf space and â€Å"product characteristics space† (i. e. , niches for product differentiation). The theory of spatial preemption is developed in papers by Prescott and Vissher (1977), Schmalensee (1978), Rao and Ruttenberg (1979) and Eaton and Lipsey (1979, 1981). The basic argument is that the first-mover can establish positions in geographic or product space such that latecomers find it unprofitable to occupy the interstices. If the market is growing, new niches are filled by incumbents before new entry becomes profitable. 5 Entry is repelled through the threat of price warfare, which is more intense when firms are positioned more closely. Incumbent commitment is provided through sunk investment costs. 6 The empirical evidence suggests that successful preemption through geographic space packing is rare. In their study of the cement industry, Johnson and Parkman (1983) found no evidence of successful geographic preemption even though structural characteristics of the industry suggest that such strategies would be likely. In a study of local newspaper markets, Glazer (1985) found no difference in survival rates between first- and second-mover firms. One explanation for these findings is that all firms in cement and newspaper markets have similar technologies and entry opportunities, so preemptive competition for preferred sites drives profits to zero. In other words, there were no initial asymmetries in timing or information to be exploited. One counter-example illustrating effective geographic preemption is a case study of the Wal-Mart discount retailing firm (Ghemawat, 1986b). Wal-Mart targeted small southern towns located in contiguous areas that competitors initially found unprofitable to serve. By coupling spatial preemption at the retail level with an. extremely efficient distribution network, the firm has been able to defend its position and earn sustained high profits. Schmalensee (1978) developed his model of product space preemption in lncumbents fill these niches in order to sustain monopoly profits at nearby locations; these profits may be dissipated if new entry occurs. 6 judd (1985) argues that sunk costs are not sufficient; exit costs are required as well. 5 6 the context of a lawsuit brought by the Federal Trade Commission against the three major US breakfast cereal companies. The FTC alleged that these firms had sustained their high profit rates through a strategy of tacit collusion in preempting supermarket shelf space and product differentiation niches. Although the lawsuit was dismissed, the cereal firms have continued to sustain exceptionally high profit rates. 7 Robinson and Fornell (1985) found that new consumer product pioneers initially held product quality superiority over imitators, and eventually developed advantages in the form of a broader product line. Thus, there is some evidence that pioneers try to reinforce their early lead by filling product differentiation niches. Preemptive investment in plant and equipment Another way in which an established first-mover can deter entry is through pre-emptive investment in plant and equipment. Here, the enlarged capacity of the incumbent serves as a commitment to maintain greater output following entry, with price cuts threatened to make entrants unprofitable. In these models, the incumbent may successfully deter new entry, as in Spence (1977), Dixit (1980), Gilbert and Harris (1981) and Eaton and Ware (1987). Alternatively, pre-emptive investment by the pioneer may simply deter the growth of smaller entrants, as in Spence (1979) and Fudenberg and Tirole (1983). These investment tactics do not seem to be particularly important in practice. Gilbert (1986) argues that most industries lack the cost structure required for preemptive investment to prove effective. Lieberman (1987a) shows that preemptive investment by incumbents was seldom successful in deterring entry into chemical product industries. One exception was magnesium, where Dow Chemical maintained a near monopoly position for several decades, based largely on investments (threatened or actual) in plant capacity (Lieberman, 1983). The role of scale economies is intentionally de-emphasized in the abovementioned models of preemptive investment. 8 When scale economies are large, first-mover advantages are typically enhanced, with the limiting case being that of natural monopoly. However, outside of public utilities, scale 7 8 0f course, these profits may be derived from sources other than spatial preemption. have also ignored the possibility that network externalities may enhance the po- sition of the first-mover firm. These externalities arise if there are incentives for interconnection or compatibility among users. (See, for example, Farrell and Saloner (1986) and Katz and Shapiro (1986). ) 7 economies approaching the natural monopoly level are seldom observed in US manufacturing industries. 9 In a theoretical treatment, Schmalensee (1981) shows that in most realistic industry settings, scale economies provide only minor entry barriers and hence potential for enhanced profits. Switching Costs and Buyer Choice Under Uncertainty Switching costs First-mover advantages may also arise from buyer switching costs. With switching costs, late entrants must invest extra resources to attract customers away from the first-mover firm. Several types of switching costs can arise. First, switching costs can stem from initial transactions costs or investments that the buyer makes in adapting to the seller’s product. These include the time and resources spent in qualifying a new supplier, the cost of ancillary products such as software for a new computer, and the time, disruption, and financial burdens of training employees. A second category of switching costs arises due to supplier-specific learning by the buyer. Over time, the buyer adapts to characteristics of the product and its supplier and thus finds it costly to change over to another brand (Wernerfelt, 1988). For example, nurses become accustomed to the intravenous solution delivery systems of a given supplier and are reluctant to switch (Porter, 1980). A third type of switching cost is contractual switching cost that may be intentionally created by the seller. Airline frequent flyer programs fit in this category (Klemperer, 1986). Theoretical models of market equilibrium with buyer switching costs include Klemperer (1986) and Wernerfelt (1986, 1988). Switching costs typically enhance the value of market share obtained early in the evolution of a new market. Thus, they provide a rationale for pursuit of market share. However, first-movers with large market shares do not necessarily earn high profits; early competition for share can dissipate profits. And under some conditions the inertia of an incumbent with a large customer base can make this firm vulnerable to late entrants, who prove to be relatively more profitable (Klemperer, 1986). For example, see Weiss (1976). This finding applies to manufacturing operations only; greater scale economies may arise in distribution and advertising. Also, many retailing markets are geographically fragmented, leading to the possibility of spatial preemption of the sort described earlier. Such preemption requires the presence of some scale economies in the form of fixed costs. 9 8 Buyer choice under uncertainty A related theoretical literature (e. g. , Schmalensee, 1982) deals with the imperfect information of buyers regarding product quality. In such a context, buyers may rationally stick with the first brand they encounter that performs the job satisfactorily. Brand loyalty of this sort may be particularly strong for low-cost â€Å"convenience goods† where the benefits of finding a superior brand are seldom great enough to justify the additional search costs that must be incurred (Porter, 1976). In such an environment, early-mover firms may be able to establish a reputation for quality that can be transferred to additional products through umbrella branding and other tactics (Wernerfelt, 1987). Similar arguments derived from the psychology literature suggest that the first product introduced receives disproportionate attention in the consumer’s mind. Late entrants must have a truly superior product, or else advertise more frequently (or more creatively) than the incumbent in order to be noticed by the consumer. In a laboratory study using consumer products, Carpenter and Nakamoto (1986) found that order-of-entry influences the formation of consumer preferences. If the pioneer is able to achieve significant consumer trial, it can define the attributes that are perceived as important within a product category. Pioneers such as Coca-Cola and Kleenex have become prototypical, occupying a unique position in the consumer’s mind. Pioneers’ large market shares tend to persist because perceptions and preferences, once formed, are difficult to alter. More traditional marketing studies confirm the existence of such perceptual effects. In a study of two types of prescription pharmaceuticals—oral diuretics and antianginals—Bond and Lean (1977) found that physicians ignored â€Å"me-too† products, even if offered at lower prices and with substantial marketing support. ’ ° Montgomery (1975) found that a product’s newness was one of the two key variables necessary to gain acceptance onto supermarket shelves. These imperfect information effects should be greater for individual consumers than corporate buyers, since the latter’s larger purchase volume justifies greater investment in information acquisition activities)-~ Using the 0ne explanation of these findings is that physicians are price insensitive because they do not actually pay the prescription costs. However, the Carpenter and Nakamoto (1986) experiments found that more typical consumers are also unwilling to switch to objectively similar â€Å"me-too† brands, even at substantially lower prices. 11 Moreover, switching costs in industrial markets often dissipate over time as the buy~r becomes more knowledgeable about competing products (Cady, 1985). 10 9 PIMS data base, Robinson (1988) and Robinson and Fornell (1985) found that pioneers had larger market shares than followers in both consumer and industrial markets, but the effect was much greater for consumer goods: order of entry explained 18% of the variance in market share in consumer goods markets, but only 8% in industrial markets. For a sample of 129 consumer packaged goods, Urban et al. (1986) found a strong inverse relation between order-of-entry and market share. Brand positions remain remarkably durable in many consumer markets. Ries and Trout (1986) noted that of twenty-five leading brands in 1923, twenty were still in first place some sixty years later. Davidson (1976) found that two-thirds of the pioneers in eighteen United Kingdom grocery product categories developed since 1945 retained their market leadership through the mid- 1970s. FIRST-MOVER DISADVANTAGES The above-mentioned mechanisms that benefit the first-mover may be counterbalanced by various disadvantages. These first-mover disadvantages are, in effect, advantages enjoyed by late mover firms. Late movers may benefit from: (1) the ability to â€Å"free ride† on first-mover investments, (2) resolution of technological and market uncertainty, (3) technological discontinuities that provide â€Å"gateways† for new entry, and (4) various types of â€Å"incumbent inertia† that make it difficult for the incumbent to adapt to environmental change. These phenomena can reduce, or even completely negate, the net advantage of the incumbent derived from the mechanisms considered previously. Free-Rider Effects Late movers may be able to â€Å"free ride† on a pioneering firm’s investments in a number of areas including RD, buyer education, and infrastructure development. As mentioned previously, imitation costs are lower than innovation costs in most industries. However, innovators enjoy an initial period of monopoly that is not available to imitator firms. Nevertheless, the ability of follower firms to free ride reduces the magnitude and durability of the pioneer’s profits, and hence its incentive to make early investments. The theoretical literature has focused largely on the implications of freerider effects in the form of information spillovers in RD (Spence, 1984; Baldwin Childs, 1969), and learning-based productivity improvement 10 (Ghemawat and Spence, 1985; Lieberman, 1987c). As mentioned previously, empirical studies document a high rate of inter-firm diffusion of technology in most industries. Guasch and Weiss (1980) assess free-rider effects operating in the labor market. They give a theoretical argument that late-mover firms may be able to exploit employee screening performed by early entrants, and thus acquire skilled labor at lower cost. This is on top of the fact that early entrants may invest in employee training, with benefits enjoyed by later entrants who may be able to hire away the trained personnel. Teece (1986a, 1986b) argues that the magnitude of free-rider effects depends in part on the ownership of assets that are complementary or specialized† with the underlying innovation. For example, EMI developed the first CT scanner but lost in the marketplace because the firm lacked a technology infrastructure and marketing base in the medical field; Pilkington, by comparison, was able to profit handsomely from its pioneering float glass process because of the firm’s ability to draw upon relevant assets and experience in the glass industry. In other instances late-mover firms have proven successful largely because they were able to exploit existing assets in areas such as marketing, distribution, and customer reputation—e. g. , IBM in personal computers and Matsushita in VCRs (Schnaars, 1986). Resolution of Technological or Market Uncertainty Late movers can gain an edge through resolution of market or technological uncertainty. 12 Wernerfelt and Karnani (1987) consider the effects of uncertainty on the desirability of early versus late market entry. They argue that early entry is more attractive when firms can influence the way that uncertainty is resolved. Firm size may also matter—they suggest that large firms may be better equipped to wait for resolution of uncertainty, or to hedge by maintaining a more flexible portfolio of investments. In many new product markets, uncertainty is resolved over time through the emergence of a â€Å"dominant design. † The Model T Ford and the DC-3 are examples of such designs in the automotive and aircraft industries. After emergence of such a design, competition often shifts to price, thereby con12 A related point is that a late-mover may be able to take advantage of the firstmover’s mistakes. For example, when Toyota was first planning to enter the US market it interviewed owners of Volkswagons, the leading small car at that time. Information on what owners liked and disliked about the VW was incorporated in the design process for the new Toyota. 11 veyin. g greater advantage on firms possessing skills in low-cost manufacturing (Teece, 1986b). Shifts in Technology or Customer Needs. Schumpeter (1961) conceived of technological progress as a process of â€Å"creative destruction† in which existing products are superceded by the innovations of new firms. New entrants exploit technological discontinuities to displace existing incumbents. Empirical studies which consider these technological discontinuities or â€Å"gateways† for new entry include Yip (1982), and Bevan (1974). Foster (1986) gives practical advice on how such discontinuities can be exploited by entrants, who might be defined as â€Å"first-movers† into the next technological phase. Sch. erer (1980, p.438) provides a list of innovative entrants who revolutionized existing industries with new products and processes. He also cites numerous examples of dominant incumbents that proved slow innovators but aggressive followers (p. 431). Since the replacement technology often appears while the old technology is still growing, it may be difficult for an incumbent to percieve the threat and take adequate preventative steps. Cooper and Schendel (1976) provide several examples, such as the failure of steam locomotive manufacturers to respond to the invention of diesel. Foster (1986) cites American Viscose’s failure to recognize the potential of polyester as a replacement for rayon, and Transitron’s inattention to silicon as a substitute for germanium in semiconductor fabrication. This perceptual failure problem is closely related to that of â€Å"incumbent inertia† considered below. Customer needs are also dynamic, creating opportunities for later entrants unless the first mover is alert and able to respond. Docutel, as the pioneer, had virtually 100% of the automatic teller machine market up to late 1974. Over the next four years, its market share declined to less than 10% under the onslaught of Honeywell, IBM and Burroughs, all of whom offered total system solutions to customers’ emerging needs for electronic funds transfer (Abell, 1978). Incumbent Inertia Vulnerability of the first-mover is often enhanced by problems of â€Å"incumbent inertia. † Such inertia can have several root causes: (1) the firm may be locked-in to a specific set of fixed assets, (2) the firm may be reluctant to cannibalize its existing product lines, or (3) the firm may become organi-12 zationally inflexible. These factors inhibit the ability of the firm to respond to environmental change or competitive threats. Incumbent inertia is often a rational, profit-maximizing response, even though it may lead to organizational decline. For example, Tang (1988) presents a model that rationalizes the decisions of most U. S. steel producers to continue investing in open hearth furnace technology during the late 1950’s and early 1960’s even though it had become clear that basic oxygen furnaces were superior. A firm with heavy sunk costs in fixed plant or marketing channels that ultimately prove sub-optimal may find it rational to â€Å"harvest† these investments rather than attempt to transform itself radically. 13 MacMillan (1983) suggests that in the rapidly-changing environment of health care, old health care systems may currently be harvesting from their initial investments in locations and personnel. The appropriate choice between adaptation and harvesting depends on how costly it is to convert the firm’s existing assets to alternative uses. And as we consider below, there have been numerous instances where organizational inertia has led firms to continue investing in their existing asset base well beyond the point where such investments could be economically justified. Much of the literature on cannibalization-avoidance refers to the case of RD. Arrow (1962) was the first to lay out the theoretical argument that an incumbent monopolist is less likely to innovate than a new entrant, since innovation destroys rents on the firm’s existing products. More recent theoretical work along these lines include Reinganum (1983) and Ghemawat (1986a). Bresnahan (1985) argues that Xerox exhibited such behavior following the expiration ofits patent-enforced monopoly—Xerox lagged in certain types of innovations and was sluggish to cut prices, given the firm’s large fleet of rental machines in the field. Brock (1975) and Ghemawat (1986a) make similar arguments regarding the innovative responses of IBM in computers and ATT in PBX’s. However, Connor (1988) shows that under a broad range of conditions, the incumbent’s optimal strategy is to develop an improved product but delay market introduction until challenged by the appearance of a rival product. From an organizational theory perspective, Hannan and Freeman (1984) outline factors that limit adaptive response by incumbents.